On May 11, 1189 A.D., Frederick I, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, sailed from Regensburg with an army of over ten thousand.  Traveling to the Levant,  they would soon be joined by Philip II of France and Richard I of England and their respective armies. For the third time within a century, Europe had rallied to reclaim the Holy Land for Christendom.  

The First Crusade (1096-99 A.D.) had drastically changed the landscape of the Levant, with the European invaders–known as Franks to the local Arab populations–establishing 4 states: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Tripoli. But in 1144 A.D., the County of Edessa fell to Zengi, the Turkmen atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo, spurring on the Second Crusade.  The Franks failed to re-take Edessa, and in the intervening years Zengi’s son, Nur ad-Din, unified all of Syria under his control.  In the fall of 1187 A.D., Saladin, the Kurdish successor to Nur ad-Din, seized both Jerusalem and the pivotal port city of Acre from the Franks.  In response, Pope Gregory VIII issued a papal bull calling for another crusade.

In preparing to invade the Holy Land, the Crusaders likely gave little thought to the area’s communication networks.  In fact, a sophisticated pigeon post had existed throughout northern Africa and southwestern Asia for centuries.  This is not entirely surprising, as the pigeon was most likely domesticated in these areas.  Intimately acquainted with the pigeons’ homing ability, trainers soon learned that pigeons could “cover the distance of twenty days’ walking in less than a day.”  The first organized pigeon post in the Muslim world was established during the reign of the third Abbasid Caliph, al-Mahdi, in the late 8th century.  At the Abbasid Caliphate’s peak, a series of government-run pigeon stations linked disparate provinces throughout the Empire. At each station, a chief of the dovecote oversaw general operations, supported by a guardian that cared for the birds and kept an eye out for returning flights.  A secretary composed the messages, while another station employee tied the message to the pigeon and released it.  Other employees exchanged birds with nearby stations to ensure two-way communication.  Servants cleaned up the cages in exchange for the valuable guano, which they sold to farmers. 

With this pigeon network, messages could be sent over a vast expanse of territory at speeds ranging from 30 to 60 mph.  The Egyptian Arab historian al-Maqrizi records a humorous anecdote from the 10th century that illustrates the network’s efficiency.  The fifth Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz loved cherries from Baalbek, Lebanon and wished to have some for dinner.  Unfortunately for his appetite, he lived in North Africa.  His ministers arranged for 600 pigeons to fly from Baalbek to Cairo with each bird carrying a small sack with a single cherry for the Caliph.  Flying over 400 miles, these birds delivered the first cargo via airmail in recorded history. 

By the time of the First and Second Crusades, the grand pigeon post of the Abbasids had declined considerably, but pigeons were still being used to convey information swiftly and reliably.  The invading Europeans, in contrast, had very little experience with homing pigeons, and thus, were limited to sending messages at the speed of horses and runners.  They soon found that the Muslim forces had an advantage over them.  Arab scouts out in the field would monitor the movements of Frankish soldiers and send that information to their military leaders.  Nevertheless, the fact that pigeons can be intercepted was exploited by the Franks during the Siege of Jerusalem in 1099 A.D.  A pigeon flying towards the city was shot down by them.  Its message revealed that reinforcements were heading that way, prompting the Franks to speed up their ultimately successful efforts to conquer the city.

In the decades prior to the Third Crusade, a systematic pigeon post re-emerged in the Muslim states.  In 1171 A.D., Nur al-Din ordered that pigeon stations be set up across his territory, which stretched from the Sinai Peninsula to the border of modern-day Iran. His motivation for this order was to protect his border cities, which were frequently attacked by Franks.  Reports of these skirmishes reached Nur al-Din well after the fact, leaving him unable to provide assistance.  After the stations were set up in cities across his Empire, these reports reached Nur al-Din the same day.  He was able to send military instructions to troops stationed near the border in real time, allowing his troops to mount a surprise counter-offensive against the Franks.  Eventually, a regular service was implemented between Egypt and Syria.

Meanwhile, as the Kings of England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire marched toward the Levant, Guy of Lusignan, the ousted King of Jerusalem, decided to attack the city of Acre  in the summer of 1189 A.D.  It would not be an easy task.  The city was well fortified—its east side lay within a walled peninsula in the Gulf of Haifa, while the west and south sides were protected by strong barriers.  Several thousands troops defended the city, as it was one of Saladin’s primary garrisons and arms depots.  Gathering 7,000 soldiers and 400 knights, Guy initially tried to breach the walls, but failed to break through.  Knowing that thousands of European Crusaders would soon be arriving, Guy set up a camp outside the city and played the waiting game.

In the interim, the Franks attempted to starve Acre into submission.   A series of 2-mile long trenches encircling the city and a naval blockade prevented supplies and information from easily reaching the besieged.  Despite these efforts, Acre’s pigeon keepers and Saladin’s troops had exchanged birds at some point prior to the siege, ensuring that two-way communication with each other would be possible.  Arab historian Imad ad-Din—who had accompanied Saladin during this period—notes that one of Saladin’s soldiers had provided the city with trained birds and had even built a large loft of reeds near Saladin’s pavilion to house the pigeons.  A cipher was developed to prevent the Franks from reading any messages that were intercepted. Thanks to these pigeons, Saladin learned of the city’s struggles, allowing him to provide the assistance that was needed.  Frequently, Saladin sent information or provisions into Acre by small boats or divers coming in through the harbor—to let Saladin know of their arrival, a pigeon was released.  The pigeons also brought news from Saladin of his battles against the Crusaders, giving the city hope.  For their part, the pigeon served admirably.  Imad al-Din had nothing but the highest praise for them:

These birds kept secrets loyally.  They ensured the flow of information, guarded the letters jealousy, showed themselves as generous as the best of noblemen.  They braved dangers, never made a mistake, and were prized as precious possessions,

Nevertheless, the city could hold out for only so long.  As the siege wore on, thousands of European soldiers joined Guy’s army.  In the spring and summer of 1191 A.D., King Richard and King Philip arrived at Acre, absent Emperor Frederick, who had drowned in the Saleph River while traveling through Asia Minor.  Bringing much needed men and siege engines, the Kings’ presence on the battlefield tilted the siege in favor of the Crusaders.  In July, the siege engines broke through Acre’s walls.  Knowing that they were facing defeat, city officials wrote the following message and sent it to Saladin via pigeon:

We are so utterly reduced and exhausted that we have no choice but to surrender the city.  If you do not effect anything for our rescue, we shall offer to capitulate and make no condition but that we receive our lives.

Saladin sent another pigeon in response, assuring them help would be forthcoming.  But it was too little too late.  The city officially surrendered on July 13th.  Over time, Acre would become the new capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, remaining under Crusader control for another century. 

The Third Crusade ultimately ended in a draw.  The Crusaders failed to regain Jerusalem, but kept control of territory in Palestine.  The Muslims destabilized the Christian kingdoms, but failed to drive the Franks out of the Holy Land.  As for the pigeon post, it would continue under Saladin’s successors, the Ayyubids, reaching its greatest heights in the 13th century after the Mamluks came into power.  But that’s a story for another day.

Sources:

• Allatt, H. T. W., “The Use of Pigeons as Messengers in War and the Military Pigeon Systems of Europe,” Journal of the Royal United Service, at 111 (1888).
• Gibbon, Edward, The Crusades, at 67 (1870).
• Hillenbrand, Carole, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, at 547-48 (2000).
• James, Peter & Thorpe, Nick, Ancient Inventions, at 526-27 (1994).
• Kistler, John M., Animals in the Military: From Hannibal’s Elephants to the Dolphins of the U.S. Navy,
• Lyons, Malcolm C. & D.E.P. Jackson,  Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War, at 310 (1982).
• Kociejowski, Marius, The Pigeon Wars of Damascus (2011).
• Man, John, Saladin: The Sultan Who Vanquished the Crusaders and Built an Islamic Empire, at 44-46 (2016).
• Reston, James, Jr., “Warriors of God,”  at 177, 198 (2001).